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Critically evaluate the various approaches to & models of practitioners research & examine the importance or otherwise of these to Youth &

Introduction

Research is a term which we hear on a daily basis, particularly it is used extensively forms of modern media, our personal discussions and professional lives of a wide variety, yet it often remains a confused term which means many different things to different people (Erskine: 2009). As suggested by Cockley (no date), practitioner research specifically is less about a ‘trial and error' approach which can often be employed by standard research, rather it requires a practitioner to consider the situation that is to be considered by a research question.

 

This paper will support this view, suggesting that as practitioner researchers, we must employ active and systematic thinking about situations and facts which affect our client group and professional lives in general. Further to this, practical elements of applying practitioner research to our work as Youth & Community professionals will be exemplified by tying theory and practice examples together.

Practitioner Research is a topic which is covered greatly in many professional fields, yet it could be said that it is one aspect of our profession which is not to the fore. The British Educational Research Association (BERA) states that Practitioner Research is "located in the field of practice-based or applied research which covers all research about and into practice" (BERA: 2009).

 

Action Research and it's Relation to Practitioner Research

 

As is covered by Kember (2000: p24), Action Research has 6 primary attributes, these being; "Concerned with Social Practice; Aimed Towards Improvement; A cyclical Process pursued by systematic inquiry; a reflective process, participative and determined by the practitioners." Many of these attributes can link directly to both Youth & Community Work as well as Practitioner Research however it could be argued that certain attributes are in conflict with the values and ethics of Youth & Community Work as well as practitioner research. While Youth & Community practitioners are concerned with social practice and are encouraged to be reflective, professionals in the field would fully support the participative aspect of this research. Research being determined by the practitioners, however, would surely be in conflict with the participative values of the profession, which seeks young people to be in control of the service which is simply facilitated for them.

This does not mean that this approach to research should be discarded entirely, in fact it should be taken and easily tailored to naturally promote the values of the relevant profession. With this in mind, it would be clear that it is entirely possible to implement this to an informal education setting by imposing less strict conditions onto a piece of work and being open to the likelihood of variables being able to take control. In a youth & community work context, it is possible for us to carry out action research alongside our client group or individuals by following the same values and beliefs as we do in any piece of work, but with the subtle difference of recording information relevant to our research question.

 

Practically, it is perfectly logical to implement action research through the same practice as we employ to engage with groups and individuals in other aspects of our work. Different activities are able to focus on different aspects of the young person's experiences, values, opinions and beliefs. If sessions and projects with a shared or focused action research aim are planned appropriately, there is no reason to say that data cannot be compiled to form the results of a research question. It could be recommended that if done in a correct manner, action research has the possibility to be a vital tool for the empowerment of young people and other community members alike, thus tailoring it into Practitioner Research for our own profession.

 

One core part of this approach to research is the ‘Action Research Cycle', which is comprised of 4 actions, being; Evaluating Action; Diagnosing; Planning Action and Taking Action. It should be stated that while this model is a cycle, as Bustingorry (2008) states, if a problem occurs in this process, the cycle does not have to be completed once over before remedial actions can be applied. In effect, the Action Research Cycle describes four key factors; how the project is conceived; what is intended; the cycles of action and the outcomes whether they are intended or unintended (King: 2008)

 

 

The core facts of Practitioner Research

 

Like any professional tools, Practitioner Research has advantages and disadvantages. The pro's of such a professional application include; it's dependence on ‘insider knowledge', practitioner opportunity and insight. Practitioner Opportunity associates opportunity with aspects of; development, improvement and change, which are all key factors of our own professional opportunity.

 

The disadvantages of Practitioner Research include factors of time, problem seeking, self-perception and the double edged sword of insider knowledge. Taking ‘Insider Knowledge' as a separate entity due to its appearance as both an advantage and disadvantage. This is caused due to the fact that is the ‘insider' referred to is in essence, ourselves, as practitioners, as experts in the field we are investigating. Yet it becomes a disadvantage when we take into consideration that, as an established practitioner, we will bring to the fore bias, prejudice and pre-conceptions. It is in personal opinion that this is an unavoidable fact of human nature, yet can be quelled by simply taking the time and considerations to work with others.

 

Models

To begin with, two accepted models of research should be analysed, those being ‘Positivistic' and ‘Non-Positivistic'. These two models focus on 2 different styles of research, being quantitative and directive in the realm of Positivistic and qualitative and interpretative in the realm of Non-Positivistic. In terms of Positivism, science would argue that its own purpose is only to restrain ourselves to what we can observe and measure, anything beyond this is impossible (Trochim: 2006 [A]).

Non-Positivism varies from its counterpart in that it is initiated by practitioners by a statement of intent.

 

Letourneau and Allen (1999) suggest that logical positivism is no longer tenable in modern science, and so argue that a new way of thinking and a new methodology could be termed as ‘post-positivism.' Previous to their suggestion, other commentators such as Lather (1990) and Phillips (1990) have defined this entity as the search for ‘warranted assertablility' not necessarily the ‘truth'. It has been further argued that post-positivism attempts to eliminate the problem of a ‘forced choice between qualitative and quantitative research methods' (Howe: 1985). As Trochim (2006]) suggests, a post-positivist may "begin by recognising that the way scientists think and work and the way we think in our everyday lives are not distinctly different."

 

The Basic Framework of Research could be summarised as simply being a series of questions which must be answered in order for research to be carried out effectively. It can be shortened into an equation, which is: ‘' which represents the questions; Who?; What?; Why?' When?; Where?; and How? being used to equal ‘Research'. ‘Who' refers to the sample, ‘why' refers to the justification for the study, ‘what' refers to the initial research question, ‘when' to time and ‘how' refers to methodology (King: 2008)

Approaches

 

One approach to research which can enhance research and the subsequent impact on communities is ‘Community Engaged Research.' This approach is when research in which community input is incorporated in the development of the question, implementation of the project, analysis of the results and/or dissemination of the findings to community stakeholders. A fundamental premise of community-engaged research is that community stakeholders, such as clinicians and agency staff have credible, intimate and necessary understandings of the assets, concerns, values and activities of their constituents and communities (University of California: 2009). Ethics of  this approach can be directly linked to professional ethics of youth & community work and exemplified by the University of Cumbria's Research Ethics (2007), including; ‘Accountability (Consent)'; ‘Empowering'; ‘Honouring of Professional Values' and ‘Anti-Discriminatory' which of course is key to the profession.

 

Mulligan & Nadarajah (2008) further state in terms of this approach that two key features must exist. Firstly, that community members must be afforded the opportunity to feed into the direction of the research which of course ties into two of Kember's attributes previously discussed, complimenting ‘Participative' yet conflicting with ‘Determined by Practitioners.' Secondly, Mulligan & Nadarajah inform us that communities are often unwelcoming and sceptical of outside interventions from researchers, which requires a great deal of sensitivity and understanding when engaging in work within an area for the first time.

 

With further relevance to how we as practitioners can work with communities in order to enhance research and the after-effects of such action, it is important for us to understand the information required by the sample. It should be the core aim of Community Practitioners that they seek to understand how to specifically benefit their clients the most. (Robson:2002) They will want to know how the study might have an impact on their organization/ clinic and patients/clients, whether or not there will be lasting benefits, and if they will have to allocate additional staff time to complete the study protocols. Simply, it is important to understand what the purpose of Community based research is, of which there are two key aims; to improve service provision and to provide a legacy for future professionals in that field of work.

 

Another key aspect of research is the understanding of Variable and Validity. Considering Variables first, there are two classes, labelled, ‘Subject' and ‘Situational'. These relate factors such as; social class, age, ethnicity and room, time of day, venues, etc respectively. Further to this, there are in fact two types of variables which are known as Independent and Dependent. These terms are more self explanatory than those of the classes, and can be exemplified in terms of variables which can be manipulated, I.E Independent and those which you would expect to witness a considerable change in, I.E Dependent (King: 2008).

In terms of Validity, Trochim (2006 [B]) argues that we can divide validity into four types which can be sub-divided into 2 realms. These four types are, ‘Cause Construct' and ‘Effect Construct' which sit in the realm of ‘Theory', while ‘Program' and ‘Observations' are placed in the realm of ‘Observation'. The terms Cause and Effect Constructs stand for - the theory of what the cause is and the theory of what we are trying to effect and measure through our research – respectively.

Practical Relevance to Youth & Community Work

If it is hoped that practitioner research is to be directly and comfortably applied to Youth & Community Work, then it is important to understand the relevant methodologies as well as their positive and negative characteristics. As Atkinson (1995) states in respect to the compiling of data in relation to their PH.D Thesis on ‘Youth Work Research: Initiatives in the Study of  Young People, Youth Work and Youth Services', that main methodologies employed included a census of youth workers views, a series of projects involving young people and a sample survey of young people. It is important to take the four main methodologies and look at them individually. They are; Experiments; Surveys; Observations and Existing Data.

 

Taking Experiments as the first example of research methodology, it's advantages include being able to maintain control over the variable and it is the method which remains the closest to maintaining ‘causality'. Negative aspects however, include issues surrounding the difficulty to generalise due to small sample size, which can be tied into the fact that it is an expensive and time consuming task to carry out. Negative Ethical issues of experiments also have an impact, primarily because they involve a trial and error approach which, if not managed correctly, can be harmful to respondents.

 

Surveys can be split into two definitive tasks which are possibly the most well known methods of conducting research, these being Interviews and Questionnaires. Interviews can be seen as a positive approach as they assist establishing a rapport with respondents and allows practitioners to gain a good understanding of the respondent's views. Negatively, this approach can be hard to quantify due to smaller sample sizes which is often down to it being an expensive and time consuming task. On the other hand, Questionnaires have contrasting attributes, as they have an ease of data collection, often a larger sample size, less expensive and time consuming as well as easier to quantify. However, there is less quality of data in comparison to interviews, there is less rapport associated and it does not involve observing actual behaviour of respondents.

 

In further contrast to this, Observations are seen as positive as there is the opportunity to observe behaviour first hand, which also allows understanding to be initiated through close involvement with a group or individuals. Once again however, there are similar disadvantages to other methodologies, including being expensive and time consuming, small sample sizes, possible danger and ethical issues and the possibility of losing objectivity by identifying with a group or individuals. The final example is the use of Existing Data, which can be positive as it saves time, effort and money, yet negative as it is distinctly possible to inherit errors and basis as well as the data that exists simply not meeting the needs of the current study.

 

Even before the physical implications of methodologies become apparent to young people and service users, they must be at the forefront of our thoughts, starting with the research proposal. This means that when we our considering a research proposal, we must understand how this is going to benefit service users and that the methodologies that we wish to employ will not compromise their wellbeing. This is included in ethical considerations such as; meeting the criteria for reciprocity, understanding the right of participants not to take part and acknowledging the consequences of this right being exerted by participants; has consent been given and is it fully informed; accepting that individual participants may need to be protected; understanding when confidentiality is appropriate and defining who owns any knowledge gained from the study (King: 2008)

 

Practically, it is perfectly logical to implement practitioner research through the same practice as we employ to engage with groups and individuals in other aspects of our work. Different methodoligies are able to focus on different aspects of the young person's experiences, values, opinions and beliefs. If sessions and projects with a shared or focused research aim are planned appropriately, there is no reason to suggest that data cannot be compiled to form the answers and knowledge gained in respect to the initial research question. (Erskine: 2009) It could be recommended that action research - if done in a correct manner - has the possibility to be a vital tool for the empowerment of young people and other community members alike, and in turn, becoming practitioner research.

 

Word Count: 2484

Reference List:

Bustingorry (2008). ‘Towards Teachers' Professional Autonomy Through Action Research', Educational Action Research, 16 (3), pp. 407 – 420. Academic Search Complete [Online]. Available at: https://gateway.cumbria.ac.uk/ehost/,DanaInfo=.awfdCigyjwqy35Mq32+detail?vid=5&hid=113&sid=79b99e6f-539c-4a5c-a736-de3fcaeb23d4@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==#db=a9h&AN=34049742 (Accessed: 04/12/2009).

Cockley, S (no date). Guide to Practitioner Research. Available at: http://www.aelweb.vcu.edu/resguide/resguide1.html (Accessed 11/12/09)

 

Erskine (2009). Discuss the Main Characteristics and Principles of Action Research and Access the Significance of Such an Approach for Youth and Community Work Practitioners, Unpublished University Assignment, University of Cumbria.

 

 

 

 

Howe K. (1985) Two dogmas of educational research. Educational

Researcher 14(8), pp. 10 -18. JSTOR [Online] Available at: https://gateway.cumbria.ac.uk/stable/,DanaInfo=.awxyCnxzvzIy2s+1174895 (Accessed: 10/12/2009)

King V. (2008): Practitioner Research, unpublished workbook, University of Cumbria

 

Lather P. (1990) Reinscribing otherwise: the play of values in

the practices of the human sciences. In The Paradigm

Dialogue (Guba. E. ed.), Sage, Newbury Park, California,

pp. 315 - 332. Google Books [Online] Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n1ypH-OeV94C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Paradigm+Dialogue&cd=1#v=onepage&q=The Paradigm Dialogue&f=false (Accessed: 10/11/09)

 

 

 

 

 

Letourneau, N & Allen, M (1999). ‘Post-Positivistic Critical Multiplism: A Beginning Dialogue' Journal of Advanced Nursing, 30 (3), pp. 623 -630. Academic Search Complete [Online]. Available: https://gateway.cumbria.ac.uk/ehost/,DanaInfo=.awfdCigyjwqy35Mq32+pdf?vid=5&hid=9&sid=d846f15b-9ed6-4e69-b595-9b1a0046f9b9@sessionmgr13 (Accessed: 11/12/2009).

 

Mulligan & Nadarajah (2008). ‘Working on the Sustainability of Local Communities with a ‘Community-Engaged' Research Methodology', Local Environment, 13 (2), pp. 81 – 94. Academic Search Complete [Online]. Available at: https://gateway.cumbria.ac.uk/ehost/,DanaInfo=.awfdCigyjwqy35Mq32+detail?vid=3&hid=5&sid=79b99e6f-539c-4a5c-a736-de3fcaeb23d4@sessionmgr4&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==#db=a9h&AN=31579605 (Accessed: 05/12/2009)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Phillips D. (1990a) Postpositivistic science: myths and realities. In

The Paradigm Dialogue (Guba E. ed.), Sage, Newbury Park,

California, pp. 31 - 45. Google Books [Online] Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n1ypH-OeV94C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Paradigm+Dialogue&cd=1#v=onepage&q=The Paradigm Dialogue&f=false (Accessed: 10/11/09)

 

Robson (2002), Real World Research. Google Books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=DkplMcAysFQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR10&dq=robson+2002+real+world+research&ots=dpuuOYRs48&sig=ckUNKqJ-tmwsafepNJRbUIyyBvc#v=onepage&q=robson 2002 real world research&f=false (Accessed: 11/12/2009)

 

Trochim, W (2006) Social Research Methods – Positivism & Post-Positivism. Available at: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/positvsm.php (Accessed: 12/12/09)

 

Trochim, W (2006) Social Research Methods – Introduction to Validity. Available at:http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/introval.php (Accessed: 12/12/09)

 

University of California (2009). How can I best work with Community Members to Enhance my Research and its Impact on the Community? Available at: http://ctsi.ucsf.edu/research/community-faq (Accessed: 6/12/2009).

 

University of Cumbria (2007). Ethical Principles And Guidelines For Research Involving Human Subjects. University of Cumbria.

Kember, D (2000). Action learning and Action Research - Improving The Quality Of Teaching & Learning. London: Kogan Page.BERA (2009)

 

About the Author

My name is Nathan Erskine and I'm a 21 Year old student. I hold a BA(Hons) in Youth & Community Development work as well as a Professional Qualification in Youth Work and I'm currently working towards an MA in Comparative Ethnic Conflict. My undergraduate institution was the University of Cumbria in Lancaster (University of Lancaster Degree Award) while my current studies are at Queen's University Belfast.

My base interests are Youth & Community Work in Northern Ireland; the application of community work to conflict resolution; Peace & Reconciliation and young people and communities participating in governance.

It is my hope to become a published article writer in the near future, so please feel free to read my articles and provide feedback of any kind! You may contact me at nerskine02@qub.ac.uk


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